Reducing Drug trafficking in the US Research Paper

Reducing Drug trafficking in the US - Research Paper Example One of the facets of prescription drug abuse is opioid abuse, which is abused by more than 7 million people. In discussing this problem, this paper will indicate the breakdown of statistics related to this problem, discuss the factors that drive this high prevalence of prescription drug abuse, the main prescription drugs abuses and then give proposed solutions to the problem. This section will also propose treatment methods for prescription drug abuse. In the United States, the more than 7 million people reported to be abusing prescription drugs make up about 2.7 percent of the whole population, a statistics that indicates the seriousness and prevalence of the problem. The main prescription drugs abused are those that focus on the central nervous system and the drugs that are used medically for psychiatric problems. This means that the main drugs abused fall under pain relievers, tranquilizers, stimulants or sedatives. Reports indicate that adolescents and young adults mainly abuse p rescription drugs that are served over-the-counter. This is also the same for other individuals, although a significant number do doctor-hopping; the process of getting the same prescriptions from different doctors. This high prevalence of prescription drug abuse is usually driven by three main factors. The first factor is the misperception that people have about the safety of the drugs. Many individuals assume that since the drugs are prescribed by doctors, they should be safe to take, and even with the increasing abuse, are not as bad as illegal drugs. What the public fails to understand is that prescription drugs work on the central nervous system in much the same way as illicit drugs. Another driving factor is the increasing availability of these drugs. With the ease at which people get prescription drugs over the counter, statistics for abuse are steadily increasing. The last reason that mainly drives prescription drug abuse is the motivations for their use. Most individuals st art taking the drugs for disease or some problem. However, the continued attachment to these drugs increases the prevalence of abuse. Drugs like opioids, when abused, have severe risks to the human body. The first risk factor associated with opioid abuse is addiction. From research, it is seen that opioids act on the same receptors in the brain as heroine and similar drugs. Causes Drug trafficking is made possible when there is a demand and supply chain. It is an opportunity created by a communities’ dependence on substances that enhance abilities or suppress emotions that a person is not ready to handle. Nevertheless, dependence alone is not the cause; the cause comes when one starts abusing the drug. These drugs vary from prescription drugs to those that are illicit. However, in recent times there has been an upsurge in the abuse of prescription drugs. According to recent data from the National Survey of Drug Use and Health, (NSDUH), a third of the people above twelve years of age who started using drugs in 2009 started by taking prescription drugs without a medical reason. Additionally, the report ‘Epidemic: Responding to America’s Prescription Drug Abuse Crisis, shows that the number of people refilling ‘Opioid pain relievers’ prescriptions has increased as has the dosage prescribed to them. In the same report, prescription drugs come second as the most abused drug after marijuana. Prescription drugs are easy to access especially painkillers. This is because families and

Is capital punishemtn a deterrent Essay Example for Free

Is capital punishemtn a deterrent Essay Running Head: Abstract Indeed statistics will show that capital punishment is not an effective deterrent to crime; effective comparisons show that there is no significant correlation between lowered crime rates and the deterrent effect in states which implement the death penalty even with the incorporation of socio-economic elements as evidenced in comparing Virginia against West Virginia. In fact, the opposite is true that the crime rate tends to be lower in states without the death penalty. The majority support capital punishment although the prevailing attitude which is shared by the government as well, is to implement it more cautiously with regards to certain issues and sectors as legal, ethical and moral challenges have been raised against it and the criminal justice system as a whole. Is capital punishment an effective deterrent as compared between states for and against with similar socio-economic backgrounds? Hypothesis: Capital punishment is not an effective deterrent to crime; this hypothesis will be proven through current studies on the issue as well as criminal justice statistics which will show that there is no significant correlation between lowered crime rates and the deterrent effect in states which implement the death penalty. In fact, the opposite is true that the crime rate tends to be lower in states without the death penalty. I. Brief history of death penalty in United States and Supreme Court decisions The death penalty traces its roots in ancient history, making its first appearance in the Codes of Hammurabi in ancient Babylon where 25 kinds of crime warranted the ultimate punishment of death. From the ancient Hittites to the Draconian Code of Athens, the punishment was more severe as all crimes merited the death penalty. During the time of Jesus Christ, the Roman law of the Law Tablets prevailed and routinely invoked such methods as crucifixion, impalement and even being burned to death as penalties (DPIC, 2008). America traces its use of the death penalty to the British settlers with the first known recorded execution in the colonies carried out for a man accused of being a spy for Spain. The death penalty reached a point where it was even meted out to certainly less serious offenses although each colony was left to its own discretion as to how to implement it. Eventually, the Age of Enlightenment created a movement which felt that the death penalty was totally wrong on a whole lot of levels. The abolitionist movement which arose from this period strongly voiced its opinion that there was no way to justify the taking of a person’s life regardless of what he may have done against society. But even as there were formal attempts towards the reformation of the penalty in terms of actually changing the specific death penalty mandates of some states, it wasn’t until the mid-19th century that more successful strides in this regard was made; the first calls were for the imposition of the death penalty on truly serious crimes; later, states in this context began to review the crimes which they felt really warranted the death penalty; changing the manner of executions from being very public to more private confines within newly built correctional penitentiaries (DPIC, 2008). Eventually, an American state finally mustered its constituency to abolish the death penalty with Michigan taking this distinct honor in 1846 followed later by several more states. But even as some states still held onto capital punishment, general reforms on the issue began to shape not only the concept of death penalty, but of the entire criminal justice system as well. There followed greater distinction and sensitivity as to what crimes necessitated the death penalty. The establishment of statutes for one made the justice system more objective and fair; instead of an automatic imposition of the death penalty on capital crimes regardless of the facts surrounding the case, discretionary statutes allowed for an examination of the facts before sentencing was made. But it was only in the latter part of the 20th century that much of the spirited discussion on the death penalty took a more significant turn when the United States Supreme Court took a major role in threshing out some of the thornier points of contention in the debate. Some of its major decisions include; 1. Ruling out the unconstitutionality of the death penalty specifically under the Eighth Amendment; in 1958 in the case of Trop v. Dulles (356 U. S. 86), it was argued that the death penalty at this point in time (1958) was indeed cruel and unusual punishment and as such, that it can no longer be considered as something in keeping with America’s â€Å"standards of decency† and should therefore be abolished (DPIC, 2008). 2. That the death penalty can be imposed only when a jury recommends it was rendered unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in two cases where the prosecutor and the jury had important roles to play in the meting out of the death penalty in capital crimes; in U. S. v. Jackson (390 U. S. 570), the Court upheld that the practice was unconstitutional because it encouraged defendants to waive their right to a jury trial to ensure they would not receive a death sentence (DPIC, 2008). In Witherspoon v. Illinois (391 U. S. 510) the Supreme Court held that a person’s mere hesitancy or reservation towards the death penalty is not enough reason to have him or her disqualified from being part of the jury in a death penalty case; disqualification could only be possible if it can be proven that more substantial display of attitudes can actually affect the outcome of the case. Later similar cases such as in Crampton v. Ohio and McGautha v. California tackled the issue of whether the jury as both the power to not only impose the death penalty as they see fit, but that they could also determine in a single deliberation, the verdict as well as the resulting sentence; in this regard, the Supreme Court in favor of the jury having the ultimate discretion (DPIC, 2008). But in the landmark case Furman v. Georgia (408 U. S. 238)), the Supreme Court again was compelled to decide on these same issues, the result of which was the voiding of 40 death penalty statutes (DPIC, 2008). This had a double edged outcome; even as the death penalty had been deemed unjust (and reinforcing statutes voided in this regard), it still allowed states who still wanted the death penalty to keep it reinstated by simply re-writing their death-penalty statutes. In later years, the debate has shifted equally on both sides. As the United States has opted to keep the death penalty in a global circle of adherents which keep on shrinking, it has however imposed limitations with regards to controversial areas. Special areas of concern with regards to the imposition of death penalty include issues in cases of mental illness and retardation; the factor of race with a disproportionate number of blacks on death row; the constitutionality of executing juvenile offenders. Another important issue is wrongful convictions. As addressed in the case Herrera v. Collins (506 U. S. 390 (1993)) the Supreme Court has mulled over the possibility that people on death row who profess their innocence could actually be innocent (DPIC, 2008). An important outcome of the case was that new evidence for possible innocence could be weighed and a new trial possibly considered. Numerous inmates on death row have been released because of this and their innocence subsequently affirmed through new scientific evidence and technology. II. Stating the problem Does capital punishment deter crime? The pivotal question would seem to be, does capital punishment really deter crime? If public opinion were to be taken as a simplistic barometer to answering this question, it would show that capital punishment as deterrence is perceptual, not factual. The Gallup Poll news service has recorded surveys beginning from 1936 up to the present day which show that public perception is reactionary- people tend to favor it more when confronted with violent and sensational crimes and then falling to record lows when there aren’t any (cited in Gallup Poll, 2004). The fact that the United States is showing declining numbers in death sentences being meted out, from 300 in 1998 down to roughly half of that (143) in 2003 (DPIC, 2008) doesn’t reveal anything except the fact that there are numerous challenges against the criminal justice system which makes for the handing out of death sentences far more difficult than it used to be. Pro-abolitionists are pointing out however that the single most convincing evidence against the death penalty may be the fact that crime statistics and trends show that of the dozen states that have chosen not to enact the death penalty have not had higher homicide rates than states that still impose the death penalty (Bonner, 2000). Highly revealing is the fact that the 10 of the 12 states without capital punishment have homicide rates far below the national average while contrastingly, more than half the states who still impose death have rates above the national average (Bonner, 2000). A state-by-state analysis found that during the last 20 years, the homicide rate in states with the death penalty has been 48 percent to 101 percent higher than in states without the death penalty (Bonner, 2000). Other interesting factual points include the fact that â€Å"homicide rates have risen and fallen along roughly symmetrical paths in the states with and without the death penalty† which means simply that the death penalty as a deterrent doesn’t really work (Bonner, 2000). Critics who are pro-death penalty point out however that there may be other factors which contribute to lower or higher crime rates which are not solely the effect of having or not having the death penalty. They point out other factors contributory to homicide rates such as the state’s demographics, unemployment and police or state defense and security profile. But the analysis found that the demographic profile of states with the death penalty is not far different from that of states without it. The poverty rate in states with the death penalty, as a whole, was 13. 4 percent in 1990, compared with 11. 4 percent in states without the death penalty (Bonner, 2000). III. Virginias death penalty vs. West Virginias life imprisonment A significant point of comparison to make would be between Virginia which still upholds the death penalty as against West Virginia which chooses to mete out life imprisonment. In Virginia, there have been so far 94 executions as of 2005 since the 1976 reinstatement of the death penalty; to be â€Å"eligible† for the death penalty in this state, one must have committed a capital crime under specific circumstances which can include among other things; robbery or attempted robbery; rape or attempted rape or sodomy, or attempted sodomy, the killing of a law enforcement officer; a multiple homicide; murder for hire; murder while incarcerated, etc (VADP, 2005). Virginia Crime Demographic Vs. West Virginia Crime Demographic In the year 2000 Virginia had an estimated population of 7,078,515 which ranked the state 12th in population; this is compared with West Virginia which had an estimated population of 1,808,344 putting it at a ranking of 37th over-all. In that same year, Virginia’s total crime index was 3,028. 1 reported incidents per 100,000 people, ranking it 41st overall. In comparison, West Virginia had a total Crime Index of 2,602. 8 reported incidents per 100,000 people ranking it at 47th highest over-all (DC, 2007). In terms of violent crime, Virginia had a reported incident rate of 281. 7 per 100,000 people ranking it 37th overall; in comparison, West Virginia had a reported incident rate of 316. 5 per 100,000 people ranking it 34th highest occurrence for Violent Crime among the states (DC, 2007). For crimes against Property, the state had a reported incident rate of 2,746. 4 per 100,000 people, which ranked as the state 41st highest. In comparison, West Virginia reported incident rate of 2,286. 3 per 100,000 people, which ranked it 47th highest (DC, 2007) Also in the year 2000 Virginia had 5. 7 Murders per 100,000 people, ranking the state as having the 20th highest rate for Murder; its 22. 8 reported Forced Rapes per 100,000 people, ranked it 45th highest; for Robbery, per 100,000 people, its rate at 88. 9 ranked the state as having the 28th highest for Robbery. In comparison West Virginia’s figures are the following; at 2. 5 Murders per 100,000 people, it ranks 38th highest rate for Murder; for 18. 3 reported Forced Rapes per 100,000 people, its ranking stands at 49th highest; for Robbery, per 100,000 people, its rate at 41. 4 ranks it as having the 41st highest for Robbery (DC, 2007) For about 164. 3 Aggravated Assaults for every 100,000 people, Virginia ranks at the 40th highest position for this crime among the states; every 100,000 people had about 429. 9 Burglaries, which ranks it at the 46th highest standing among the states. In comparison, West Virginia had 254. 2 Aggravated Assaults for every 100,000 people, which indexed the state as having the 24th highest position for this crime among the states; for every 100,000 people there were 546. 9 Burglaries, which ranks it as having the 36th highest standing among the states (DC, 2007). In larceny, Virginia had theft reported 2,064. 8 times per hundred thousand people which ranks it as the 38th highest among the states; broken down Vehicle Theft occurred 251. 6 times per 100,000 people, which makes it good for 38th highest for vehicle theft overall. For West Virginia, Larceny Theft were reported 1,556. 1 times per hundred thousand people which ranks it 50th highest among the states; broken down, Vehicle Theft occurred 183. 3 times per 100,000 people, which ranks the state as having the 43rd highest for vehicle theft overall (DC, 2007). In terms of economy and socio-economic indicators, it is significant to note that the expectation of poverty indicators as suggestive of influencing higher crime rates does not hold true in this comparative analysis of crime demographics between Virginia and West Virginia. Economically, Virginia dwarfs West Virginia in economic size and strength; According to the 2004 U. S. Bureau of Economic Analysis report, Virginia’s gross state product was $326. 6 billion. The per capita personal income was $35,477 in 2004. In 2006 and 2007, Forbes Magazine voted Virginia as having the [ best climate for business] in the United States citing economic growth, business costs/incentives and quality of life (Wikipedia, 2007) In comparison, West Virginia’s has been described as â€Å"very fragile and that according to the U. S. Census Bureau is the third lowest in per capita income ahead of only Arkansas and Mississippi and ranking last in median household income† (Wikipedia, 2007). While it is simplistic to assume that other factors don’t come into play such as the dynamics of crime with changing median incomes, it is hard to ignore the consistency by which the state of West Virginia has bested Virginia in the incidence of various crimes, both capital or lesse in nature across the same population samples. This gives some credence to the argument that even as it cannot be entirely proven that the death penalty does not outrightly deter crime, its use doesn’t give any clear or dramatic evidence that it as as effective as other means of deterents. The fact as proven by the comparison between two states with entirely different socio-economic profiles and crime demographics tends to affirm that those states who don’t use it, do have lower crime rates as a whole. IV. Ethical and moral issues race factor/exonerations/ juvenile/mental health issues The ethical and moral discussions over capital punishment have strong universal resonance; almost since its inception, the the United Nations General Assembly for its part has adopted a Universal Declaration of Human Rights which inevitably promoted a right of life. It was one of the first institutions to recognize and point out attention to the implications of applying the death penalty to juveniles, pregnant women, and the elderly. The international community followed in its footsteps with progressive endeavors in drafting treaties which included the issue of capital punishment and the right to life; it has to be noted though that these treaties to some extent allowed death as punishment, but only in certain extreme circumstances. Despite this exception, many nations throughout Western Europe stopped using capital punishment, even if they did not, technically, abolish it. As a result, this de facto abolition became the norm in Western Europe by the 1980s. (cited in Schabas, 1997). While still holding on to its belief in capital punishment, the United States however has moved towards limitations which it has effectively applied to the ethical and moral questions of the death penalty being applied to juveniles, women, blacks and even the mentally challenged. Some limitations though such as the one evidenced from the 1977 Coker v. Georgia case still stirs up debate as to how the court can stretch the boundaries of limitations. In this case, the U. S. Supreme Court established that the death penalty was an unconstitutional punishment for the rape of an adult woman simply because the victim wasn’t killed. In Ford v. Wainwright, the Supreme Court ruled that extreme care should be taken in capital punishment cases where it can be established that the defendant might be certified to be either mentally ill or mentally retarded; as a result, the Supreme Court in this case, banned the execution of insane persons pending establishment of mental incompetence. Notable was Penry v. Lynaugh in 1989 where the Court upheld that executing persons with mental retardation was not a violation of the Eighth Amendment; but it later reversed itself when in Atkins v. Virginia in 2002, the Court pointed out that national and collective consensus against the meting out of the death penalty on the mentally challenged did indeed qualify it as being cruel and unusual punishment under the Eight Amendment (DPIC, 2008). Race has become a controversial issue due to the fact that as Amnesty International reports: Even though blacks and whites are murder victims in nearly equal numbers of crimes, 80% of people executed since the death penalty was reinstated have been executed for murders involving white victims. More than 20% of black defendants who have been executed were convicted by all-white juries (Cited in Amnesty Report). In Virginia, a study by Civil Liberties Union has branded the state’s administration of capital punishment as â€Å"unequal, unfair and irreversible† and citing that â€Å"race is a controlling factor in the way the death penalty is administered in Virginia† (cited in ACLU, 2003). It is in this context that the Supreme Court in Batson v. Kentucky (1986) provides for scrutiny against a prosecutor who might be biased through striking out jury members of a similar case in a disproportionate manner. In the 1987 case of McCleskey v. Kemp (481 U. S. 279), statistical analysis was used as evidence to point out racial discrimination in Georgia state’s administration of the death penalty. The Supreme Court however ruled it out saying; â€Å"that racial disparities would not be recognized as a constitutional violation of equal protection of the law unless intentional racial discrimination against the defendant could be shown (DPIC, 2008). With regards to the application of the death penalty on juveniles, three significant cases allowed the Supreme Court to rule that the execution of offenders aged fifteen and younger at the time of their crimes was unconstitutional. However, juvenile offenders under the age of 16 who have committed capital offenses can be executed if the state that has jurisdiction over their case does not have a minimum age in its death penalty statute; furthermore, the Supreme Court also held that under the Eighth Amendment, there was no effective prohibition for the imposition of capital punishment for offenders aged 16 or 17. V. Conclusion: Death penalty not a deterrent according to statistics, however majority support capital punishment. Indeed statistics will show that capital punishment is not an effective deterrent to crime; effective comparisons show that there is no significant correlation between lowered crime rates and the deterrent effect in states which implement the death penalty even with the incorporation of socio-economic elements as evidenced in comparing Virginia against West Virginia. In fact, the opposite is true that the crime rate tends to be lower in states without the death penalty. The majority support capital punishment although the prevailing attitude which is shared by the government as well, is to implement it more cautiously with regards to certain issues and sectors as legal, ethical and moral challenges have been raised against it and the criminal justice system as a whole. References ACLU (2003) New ACLU Report Finds Virginia Death Penalty System Riddled with Flaws, Recommends Sweeping Changes.Retrieved January 10, 2008 from http://www. deathpenaltyinfo. org/ Amnesty Report (2003) United States of America: Death by discrimination the continuing role of race in capital cases. Retrieved January 10, 2008 from http://www. deathpenaltyinfo. org/ Bonner, R. (2000) States Without Death Penalty Have Lower Homicide Rates. Retrieved January 10, 2008 from http://www. sfgate. com/ DPIC (2008) Death Penalty Information Center. Retrieved January 10, 2008 from http://www. deathpenaltyinfo. org/. Disaster Center (2007) Virginia Law Enforcement Agency Uniform Crime Reports 1980 to 2005. Retrieved January 10, 2008 from http://www. disastercenter. com/crime/vacrime. htm Disaster Center (2007) West Virginia Law Enforcement Agency Uniform Crime Reports 1980 to 2005. Retrieved January 10, 2008 from http://www. disastercenter. com/crime/wvcrime. htm Gallup Poll Service (2004) Public Support Figures for Capital Punishment. Retrieved January 9, 2008 from http://www. deathpenaltyinfo. org/. Schabas (1997) The Abolition of the Death Penalty in International Law, Cambridge University Press. Retrieved January 10, 2008 from http://www. deathpenaltyinfo. org/ VADP(2005) Virginia Death Penalty Information. Retrieved January 9, 2008 from http://www. vadp. org/info. htm Virginia Economy (2008) Wikipedia. org. Retrieved January 9, 2008 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Economy_of_Virginia West Virginia Economy (2008) Wikipedia. org. Retrieved January 10, 2008 from http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/West_virginia.

Shakarganj Food Products Limited Marketing Essay

Shakarganj Food Products Limited Marketing Essay SFPL is a public limited company set up by the Crescent Group with the objective to diversify its business activities. The group has been conducting business in the region for over 100 years and has a varied industry portfolio in sugar, textile, steel and farming. Its head office is located at Lahore, Pakistan while the production plants are in central Punjab the main fruit growing and milk supplying region of the country. The company is professionally run by experienced management. The CEO of the company is also the serving Chairman of the Pakistan Dairy Association. SFPLs human resource has a vast experience in the dairy and food industries. Continuous development and skill enhancement are an integral part of the employee development programmed at Shakarganj. Shakarganj is working hand in hand with the Dairy Industry of Pakistan to improve milk productivity and animal health. Competitors There are many competitors who provide milk like Nestle, gourmet milk, loose milk, Haleeb, Dairy milk. Mission and Vision statement Shakarganj Food Products Limited strives to be among the leading companies in the food industry and is committed to manufacturing and selling consistent, high quality world class products. SWOT Analysis Strengths The strengths of Shakarganj Good Milk according to their marketing plan are: Premium Positioning: They have position their product very well. They are positioning their product with clear message so thats why they are attracting more customers towards them by telling them their exact needs and wants. Available Everywhere: They have very much strong distribution channels through which they can make available their product at everywhere. Convenient: the product is easy to use. The packs of Good Milk have a closure for the handiness to the customers. PR with farmers This company has operating with other variants as well so they have very strong contact with their farmers and they are very happy with their deals they actually engage for giving them good advices for fertilize their land thats why gaining a good reputation over the year. So we can say that we have an advantage over others. They have long term relationships with farmers thats why farmers always wants to give milk to them. Strong consumer product research Good milk always has done research specially before launching the product and after launching as well they have very strong consumer and product research. This act can give them exact figures of the behavior of their customers and help them to develop their portfolio for future concerns. They also have global research partners such as JWT Asiatic and Mars marketing and some of other marketing and advertising agencies. Technology: Their biggest strength is their plants they have almost latest technology to process the milk and give best to their customers. Weaknesses: The weaknesses of Shakarganj Good Milk according to their market plan are: Low Quality Milk As the company doesnt have their own dairy farms so they are collecting milk from different sources so sometimes they face the problem of low quality milk. Milk collection Cost In the above section as it is mentioned that they are processing the milk by collecting it from other sources so obviously this will cost them a lot so this could be their weakness that they have to bear the cost of collection as well. On the other hand if they have their own dairy form near to processing centers then they can cut their this kind of cost. Packaging As we know that they are selling tetra pack milk so they must have their own tetra pack plant but in the mean while they are dependent on tetra pack company because that is the only option avaible to them if in case they increase the price then they have to increase their price for ultimate consumer which is their weakness that they always depend on tetra pack for their packaging. Opportunities Large Potential Market According to the market research, 80% of the total market is using Open Milk which is more beneficial according to them. Shakarganj Good Milk has a large potential market which is the opportunity to grow their business. Support by Government Previously Government has decided to support farmers because of the growth in this industry so this could be opportunity for this company that they can get benefit from the government schemes. They must be providing cheap products to the industry to sustain the growth. Awareness among consumers: Have better opportunity to give best to consumer this time because people are becoming dissatisfied as they getting aware of the side effects for loose milk its hygiene and health issues. Threats The threats for Shakarganj Good Milk are as follows: Competition There is always having threat from competitors same like good milk having the treat from their competitors because they are stronger in terms of finance and everything. Competition always creates a threat because everyone wants to be a market leader and to get maximum shares. Others brands are serving in the market from so long so they have more market share as compare to good milk. Good milk is facing strong competition which is the biggest threat to them. Price Differentials As we know that other companies are very strong so they have strong influence in the market like they can provide goods in cheap rates then good milk because big corporations having more leverage in terms of profit. Consumer preferences As this is a not so big company so obviously they cannot invest huge more capital but on the other hand consumers preferences changing over the time. Sometimes consumers purchasing power get lower and sometime they need some different taste so company has to cope with every situation. PEST Analysis Political Factor: Political environment always influencing the organizations same is the case with good milk political condition in Pakistan is not constant. They keep on changing every day so its directly influencing the matters of company. Due to unstable government there is no law and order regarding consumer rights and the tax structure is not defined in well manner so ultimately consumer is effecting from this conditions. Economic Factor: As we all know that economic crises going on, in the world so economic conditions in Pakistan are not fruitful as well. Banks increase their interest rates so company is getting loans with high interest rates so ultimately they will be serving with high rates in market. Un-employment is also increasing day by day and the purchasing power of consumer going down so company have to sell their products with affordable price where as on the other hand cost is increasing because of high rate of inflation. Social Factors Population of Pakistan is increasing so company has more opportunity to sell their products because milk is the basic necessity of life. In Pakistan most people prefer to buy fresh milk rather than pasteurize milk. There is no specific choice for consumers that they want to buy foreign product or not but still high income level community wants to buy foreign or some renowned brand and low ones go for the cheaper and affordable products. Technological Factors Technology factors always impact on the success of the organization. Technology enables the product innovation and makes services at good standard. This factor decreases the chances of unhygienic milk and provides better quality of milk. Good milk can store milk for long term with the help of modern nutrition machines and fresh milk will be available for consumer. Through technology organization can easy communicate directly and indirectly with consumers and within the organization. Organization can increase the dairy milk process and dry milk process technology. Conclusion In the net shell we can say that company is having strong position but as compare to other companies their financial position is lower than others so they should increase their financial position by doing more investments to increase earnings. Company having more opportunities for the market because market is expending so they have more market space. Company should overcome their weakness and make them strength in future so that they can cope with market every time. Refrences http://www.shakarganj.com.pk/foods/foods_bro.pdf http://marketingteacher.com/lesson-store/lesson-swot.html http://marketingteacher.com/lesson-store/lesson-pest.html

Animals Are Good Essay -- essays research papers

cures await discovery. Although the list is pretty much endless, here are some examples, by decade, including the main species used that were crucial to the discovery: Pre-1900: Treatment for rabies (dogs, rabbits), smallpox (cows), anthrax (sheep). 1900s: Cardiac catheterization techniques (dogs, rabbits), treatment for rickets (dogs). 1920s: Discovery of insulin (dogs). 1930s: Development of modern anesthesia (dogs), prevention of tetanus (horses), development of anticoagulants (cats). 1940s: Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (rabbits, monkeys), discovery of the RH factor (monkeys), prevention of diptheria (horses), antibiotics (rats, mice, rabbits, etc), treatment for whooping cough (pigs and rabbits). 1950s: Prevention of polio (rabbits, monkeys, rodents), discovery of DNA (rats and mice), development of open-heart surgery and pacemaker (dogs), development of cancer chemotherapy (monkeys, rabbits and rodents). 1960s: Development of lithium treatment (rats and guinea pigs), prevention of rubella (monkeys). 1970s: Prevention of measles (monkeys), treatment for leprosy (monkeys, armadillos), heart bypass surgery (dogs). 1980s: Development of monoclonal antibodies for treating diseases (mice, rabbits), organ transplant advances (dogs, sheep, cows and pigs). 1990s: Laproscopic surgical techniques (pigs), breast cancer genetic and environmental links (fruit flies, mice and rats), gene therapy for cystic fibrosis (mice and primates). It is often hard to c...

Different causes for leg pain in children

There are many different causes and diagnoses for leg pain in children.   Developmental stage or age groups   many of these causes.   Some, however, can occur at any age.4The numerous causes of leg pain in children include Legg-Calve-Perthes disease, sports injuries, toddler’s fractures, Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis(here forward referred to in the medical jargon of SCFE), and leg length differences. 4 Related article: Identify Circumstances When Children and Young People Might Require Urgent Medical AttentionLegg-Calve-Perthes is also referred to as Legg-Perthes, here forward to be referred to as LCP.   LCP is rare, and in the United States only occurs at the ratio of 1:1200 children under the age of 15.  Ã‚   The developmental stage when LCP becomes clinically evident is between the ages of 3-12 years of age, with 7 yrs being the median age.1   However, other sources site the specified age range as between 4-8 years, which actually is a representation of the median 7 years stated earlier. 3LCP is characterized not just by developmental age, but by sex, familial, and racial factors as well.   Most LCP patients are Caucasian; in addition, most have a parent or close relative who suffered from the disease as well.1   Males are affected 4-5 times more frequently than females, but this is not a sex-linked trait.   A genetic factor is implied, but with no identifiable gene as of yet.1LCP is defined â€Å"as the idiopathic avascular osteonecrosis of the capital femoral epiphysis of the femoral head.† 1What happens in the case of LCP is this:   due to unknown etiology, the head of the femur, which contains the epiphysis and epiphysial plate, becomes necrotic.   Necrosis, meaning dead or dying tissue, in this case means that no further bone growth can occur, owing to the fact that blood supply has been cut off. 3,4Since new bone cells are produced primarily at the epiphysial plate, no bone growth in the affected leg means that, until treated, it will become shorter than the unaffected leg.  Ã‚   Soon afterward, a noticeable limp occurs due to pain and compensation for the self same pain.   Children suffering from LCP may also have pain in the groin, knee, and thigh as well. 1,2,4Necrosis in the femoral head leads to inflammation, thus being the initial cause of pain.   Activity, especially excessive hip-leg activity such as running or ju mping, will irritate the femoral head and increase the pain level.   The pain can be relieved or lessened by rest. 4X-ray films arrive at definitive diagnosis, but doctors suspecting the problem will look for clinical signs that LCP is present.   These clinical signs include difficulty rotating the knee.   If LCP has existed for some time and gone undiagnosed, other clinical signs will be indicative of its presence, such as atrophy of the buttocks, calf, or thigh muscle.1, 2Those afflicted with LCP receive a myriad of treatments. The treatment plan is most likely individualized for each child depending on the severity of pain, atrophy, and gait difficulties.The treatments used most commonly are â€Å"leg exercises, crutches, casts, bracing, and occasionally traction and surgery.   With proper treatment, the bone will grow back and the child will be able to walk normally without pain.† 4Toddler’s fractures can occur quite easily with a simple fall.   Signs to look for are irritability of the child, persistent complaints of pain, and refusal to walk. These should be relied on heavily as a parent’s diagnosis of a problem, for inflammation and redness are minor at the site above the break. 4The bone fractured in these cases is typically the tibia.   The above-mentioned symptoms warrant immediate medical attention and typically reflect that a fracture has occurred if the child is between 2-4 years old. 4Sports injuries can occur at any age of the active child.   When a sports injury has occurred, pain and limping may result due to , i.e., ankle and knee sprains, or muscle strains.   However, if limping persists after a few days of rest, or if the child refuses to bear weight on the leg,   immediate medical attention is warranted. 4Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis, with the medical acronym of SCFE, â€Å"is a common hip disorder in overweight adolescents†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã‚   4  The symptoms resulting from the slipped epiphysis are severe pain occurring in the hip and knee.   This, in turn, results in limited movment of the affected hip, and limping.   Diagnosis is by x-ray. 4Treatments would include pain relief as prescribed by the doctor; a usual program of alternating Tylenol and Ibuprophen might be prescribed.   Included in the treatment plan would be immediate counseling of the family and adolescent on proper diet, and allowable exercise considering the ailment.Sickle Cell Disease(SCD) is the severest form of the sickling syndromes; this is because it is homozygous recessive.   In other words, the child carries both recessive alleles on the chromosome.   In all sickling syndromes, the problem results from the genetic error of the red blood cell design.   In the United States, it is estimated that 1:12 Blacks   are carriers of the sickle cell trait, and 1:65 develop sickle cell anemia.   Though predominantly affecting Blacks in the U.S., other   races are susceptible as well:   peo ple from the Mediterranean, India, Asia-Minor, and the Caribbean.Rather than the normal shape of RBC’s, the genetic disorder causes sickle-shaped cells that do not allow oxygen to attach to the protein heme in an effective manner.   This reduces oxygen available in the blood.5The prognosis for children with SCD is poor, in that death occurs during the middle-aged years.   â€Å"Anemia usually is severe, chronic and hemolytic.† 5  Ã‚  Ã‚   Both acute and chronic exacerbations will occur, the frequency of which is most likely tied to emotional and environmental factors.   These environmental factors include emotional upset, situations that lead to dehydration, change of oxygen tension in the body(by infection, which is common, i.e.,), and weather changes – in particular cold.   Environmental factors that can be eliminated altogether to help reduce the recurrence or severity of attacks are alcohol and tobacco. 5The worst-case scenario, which does occur wi th these patients, is vaso-occlusive episodes. In these episodes, circulation is greatly hampered, resulting in pain concentrated in areas of localized necrotizing bone marrow, i.e., the sternum, ribs, long-bones, spine and pelvis.   The occlusion is from clumped, sickle cells that cannot flow out of the area. 5No specific therapy exists for SCD.   However, depending on the type of crisis, be it the need to lower Hb S during an infarction, too little oxygen and RBC’s, severe dehydration, etc., transfusion is a frequent treatment – usually packed red blood cells are the blood component used. 5â€Å"Transial Synovitis of the hip is a cause of hip pain in children.† 7   Ã‚  The adjective ‘transial’ is used because the condition does not last long – approximately a week.   Symptoms of pain occur in one hip, but pain may also be felt in the medial aspect of the knee and thigh.   The pain occurs in the tissue surrounding the hip, not in t he bones themselves.   7The pain increases with different rates in children; some are in the doctor’s office within 1-3 days of onset, some a few days later as the pain peaks.   The child may have a limp, or have trouble standing and walking by the time he’s seen.   Once again, boys are affected more than girls.   The age range affected is from 3-10 years of age. 7Treatment is bed rest for 3-4 days and use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatories for pain relief, reduction of inflammation and swelling.   The child returns to normal after this time period.   If a temperature is present, the doctor may order x-rays and blood tests to rule out other hip conditions.7Leg Length Differences.   The name is self-explanatory.   â€Å"Some children are either born with or develop a difference in the length of the bones in their legs.† 4     Ã‚  No etiology is given for either scenario, and both situations receive the same set of treatment choices.   Diff erences in leg length between 0-2cm require no treatment most of the time, but shoe lifts may be used.   If the length difference is between 5-15cm, surgery to lengthen one leg or to shorten the other is necessary, unless a prosthesis is chosen for the shorter limb. 4In summary, there are many conditions and diseases that add to the suffering and cause of leg pain in children.   The hip disorders and diseases discussed that are accompanied by knee and/or thigh pain, can be misdiagnosed as injuries originating in the knee, other than compensational pain as the symptoms really are.   Though many affect children at different stages of life and bear different severity of diagnosis and prognosis, all are significant.BIBLIOGRAPHYwww.mrsci.com/Orthopedics/Perthes_disease.php, 10/26-27/06www.hopkinsmedicine.org/orthopedicsurgery/perthes.html, 10/26-27/06Hall & Brody:   Therapeutic Exercise:   Moving Toward Function, 2nd Editionc 2005, Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins.www.keepkids healthy.com/symptoms/legpainlimping.html, 10/26-27/06Phipps, Cassmeyer, Sands, Lehman, Medical-Surgical Nursing,Concepts and Clinical Practice, c 2005, Mosby.Shiel, Jr., William C., MD,www.medicinenet.com/ankylosing_spondylitis/article.html, 10/26-27/06www.familydoctor.org/181.xml, 10/26/06DIFFERENT CAUSES FOR LEG PAIN  IN CHILDREN2006

Adolescence Acting Out In Group Theraphy

Acting-out means performing an act that expresses emotional conflict in the individual. The emotional conflict may be subconscious. The actions done in acting out are usually antisocial and are meant for getting attention. Behaviors acted out include drug taking, or behaving promiscuously.Actions in this category are harmful to the individual and stand in the way of the individual developing constructive behavioral responses to feelings. Acting out is the opposite of response to feelings in ways like talking out, or psychodrama. (Blatner, 1996)This behavior happens within group processes and is studied in group dynamics which is the study of groups. The group dynamics study’s primary concern is small group behavior. A group is a number of individuals who are brought together by social relations. Groups develop peculiar dynamic behaviors among its members due to their close interaction.According to psychoanalysis findings by Sigmund Freud, human actions can be explained by look ing at the conscious and the subconscious part of the mind. The unconscious is a section of the mind that is not immediately connected to perceptions but is a store of a persons past experiences. The past experiences come out of the unconscious to the conscious and in a way affect our personalities.The imperative here is that the motivations for acting out are beyond conscious control. However the motivations can be accessible through inference on behavior as the actions are believed to be the expression of repressed material. (Jones, 1973)The term used to describe the relation of experiences from one interpersonal setting to another is called transference. It deals with revisiting past experiences in existing circumstances. The relation of past and present behaviors are established by other people who come into contact with the individual. The individual will be discovered to be trying to address the unresolved issues from his/her past.  In this paper, group therapy is tackled on the basis of psychotherapy, and psychoanalytic studies. Psychotherapy is the field that specializes in investigating the manifestations of relations of past actions on the present actions with aim of helping the persons overcomes the influence. Psychotherapists look into the unconscious projections of transference.In psychoanalytic study transference is seen as a source of conflict and as one of the influences of choices in life including occupations. They lead a person to be interested in certain things like settings, and people. It therefore unites the past and the present.A good understanding of transference helps psychotherapists understand the causes of some human behavior more clearly in order to be able to implement effective interventions. According to Sigmund Freud the formative experiences of a person are critical, and relationships of childhood years are reflected with other significant ones through life. The earlier events come out in repeated difficulties in relationsh ips and dreams.Lack of happiness and conflict can in this case be understood through knowledge of unconscious human motivations. (Nickel, 1987)The repressed materials are thus acted out. Interpretations of acting out of individuals vary with the contexts under which they act, and the audiences that witness the actions. In the context of parenting acting out is literally understood. It means acting those desires that are forbidden by the society.According to psychoanalysis study the laws in the society make the Superego and a person’s body of desires is called the Id. The Superego acts on the Id to make a person behave in socially acceptable manner. Freud used the theory of psychoanalysis to devise ways of treating patients with mental problems.  The initial desires of the individual are replaced with socially accepted behavior in a process called sublimation. However, in acting out the individual goes contrary to the authority of the superego on the Id. Acting out entails c oping with pressure by giving in to the desires of the Id. The person who acts out their desires do it with little or no regard to their conscience and with little thought.Hence the acts are either deliberately bad or unpremeditated wrongdoing. Even when the people are aware of their wrongdoing they try to protect themselves against the society’s censure by hiding their deeds. Other coping mechanisms that use are such as denial which is used to protect one from feelings of shame. (Freud, 1972)Acting out in essence is handling pressure by giving in to the desires. It is however not actually coping, for coping mechanisms try to handle pressure and not conforming to it.Acting out is the opposite of sublimation. Unlike in sublimation where the desired action is replaced by another socially acceptable activity, here the desire is acted out bluntly. Such things as temper tantrums are episodes of acting out. At the early age the children have not developed communication means for th eir distress feelings.Thus they use tantrums as an effective means of alerting parents of their needs and commanding attention. But then when the children pass through the society they learn to get attention through strategies that are socially acceptable and that are constructive.It is then interesting that the behavior of acting out shows again during the years of adolescence in many youths. It comes in the form of acts of rebellious nature such as smoking, and drug abuse that can be seen as a cry for recognition.The youth may be disruptive, a behavior that is caused by an inability to control emotions in other ways. During adolescence emergence of antisocial and criminal behavior occurs. This behavior goes on into adulthood with considerable loss that comes from the action to the individual, families and also the community. Attempts to identify risk factors of antisocial and criminal behavior have been done with aim of preventing the problems.Some of the risk factors are identifi ed in the years of beginning primary school. At this age there is identified difference of acting in that two groups are found. The groups are the antisocial and social. From this age there is difference of behavior between the two groups. In mid childhood the antisocial group manifested higher levels of acting out, and showed more trouble behaviors like hyper action and aggression. They were also found to act in manner craving for attention.Problematic behavior continues in late childhood. The children continue showing problematic behavior. They also become less cooperative; have lesser self control, as well as poor communication with their parents. At this age the children probably have acquired friends who practice antisocial behavior. During adolescence, the antisocial group gets more significantly different from the social group.The differences between the groups were centered on aspects of temperamence such as negativity, low persistence, volatility, involvement in risky activ ities, and acting out. Acting out is a manifestation of all the other aspects of the individual psyche at this time.A study on the prevalence of HIV and AIDS among Australian youths illuminates the study of acting out. Heckerman in the report of the study states that there has been an increase in infection rates of youths with the deadly HIV through engaging in promiscuous behaviors. The rate of levels of adolescents who are infected with the HIV has increased in the past ten years, in spite of the education on the disease being taught in the schools and family courses.With the teens receiving this information it becomes a matter of concern that the rate of infection continue to rise.  Ã‚   However, studies show that knowledge and behavioral changes are not directly correlated.   It has been established that despite the youths having adequate knowledge on HIV, the knowledge does not influence a change of risky sexual behavior.It is seen here that the youths who act out by resort ing to risky social behavior have influence that is manifested in the subconscious. (Heckerman, 2002)  In an essay on group analysis Rosenthal relates the issue of the persistent influence of subconscious on the actions of the individual on an aspect of psychoanalytic study called resistance. Resistance is understood to be an inadequate, wrongly adopted, and an indirect manner of self revelation.Using the media of resistance the psychoanalytic patient tips that he/she cannot engage in verbal communication with emotional significance. (Rosenthal, 1979).Analytic treatment exacts great demands for efforts on the part of the patient as it does on the physician. They are both demanded to overcome their inner resistances. By overcoming the resistances the patients’ mental, life is changed permanently.The patient is hence lifted into a higher level of development and remains above possibilities of regression. It takes effort to overcome the resistances as the analytic treatment is achieved. (Freud, 1916)In the essay above it has been seen that the phenomenon of acting out has got many sides to itself. A clear understanding of the concepts of transference, resistance, psychotherapy, leads one to a better understanding of the concept of acting out and helps in discerning the processes involved in the minds of those who act out and hence help in administering group therapy.References Blatner, A. (1996). Acting-in: Practical Applications of Psycho-dramatic Methods.Springer Publishing Company.Freud, Sigmund (1922) Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego. New York: Liveright Publishing.

Free Essays on Ontological And Teleological Arguments

The Ontological Argument St. Anselm felt God exists so truly that we can’t even deceive that he doesn’t exist. He does not begin about the facts of the world but goes straight to the conclusion of his being. His reason is what we mean by God is that nothing greater can be conceived. Even the fool who says there is no God has an existence as an object of thought. But Anselm believed to exist as well in the mind is the greater then just being thought of, therefore, God must exist. It’s better to exist truly than just to be an idea in the mind, a concept, thought in someone’s mind. If the fool wants to say that God exists only in the figment of the mind he’s making God a being that can be greater than just thought. If nothing greater can be thought he must exist in reality as well as in the mind. God then really exists and the fool in denying this is guilty of failing to understand what he is talking about. This applies to the most excellent of all being and only to that. We h ave the working notion that the being that nothing greater can be thought. If we were to say that God is a being that nothing greater can be thought but he doesn’t exist that would be a contradiction. What this amounts to is that infinite being alone necessarily exists. It’s not enough to think of infinite being to see its necessary existence. The notion of God is sufficient to understand his existence. Descartes begins with the most perfect being. Descartes thought metaphysical perfection was the full actualization of a possible being rather than moral perfection. St Augustine said faith seeking understanding seizes the idea of God as a necessary deduction from the date of purà ©es. Descartes moves by means of clear and distinct idea from the indubitable reality of his own mind of the reflection of the fact that he doubts. He believed to doubt is to think, if there’s thinking going on then I am. I am therefore God is. God is therefore the world is.... Free Essays on Ontological And Teleological Arguments Free Essays on Ontological And Teleological Arguments The Ontological Argument St. Anselm felt God exists so truly that we can’t even deceive that he doesn’t exist. He does not begin about the facts of the world but goes straight to the conclusion of his being. His reason is what we mean by God is that nothing greater can be conceived. Even the fool who says there is no God has an existence as an object of thought. But Anselm believed to exist as well in the mind is the greater then just being thought of, therefore, God must exist. It’s better to exist truly than just to be an idea in the mind, a concept, thought in someone’s mind. If the fool wants to say that God exists only in the figment of the mind he’s making God a being that can be greater than just thought. If nothing greater can be thought he must exist in reality as well as in the mind. God then really exists and the fool in denying this is guilty of failing to understand what he is talking about. This applies to the most excellent of all being and only to that. We h ave the working notion that the being that nothing greater can be thought. If we were to say that God is a being that nothing greater can be thought but he doesn’t exist that would be a contradiction. What this amounts to is that infinite being alone necessarily exists. It’s not enough to think of infinite being to see its necessary existence. The notion of God is sufficient to understand his existence. Descartes begins with the most perfect being. Descartes thought metaphysical perfection was the full actualization of a possible being rather than moral perfection. St Augustine said faith seeking understanding seizes the idea of God as a necessary deduction from the date of purà ©es. Descartes moves by means of clear and distinct idea from the indubitable reality of his own mind of the reflection of the fact that he doubts. He believed to doubt is to think, if there’s thinking going on then I am. I am therefore God is. God is therefore the world is....

Warhol essays

Warhol essays This is an image from Andy Warhol. When this was displayed in 1962, it was in a nearby gallery with a sign that said, Get the real thing for 29 cents. Not to forget the humor, the underlining thing is that Warhols work threatened the concept of art as serious and transcendent: artist intentions devoid of satire seemed as cheerfully vacuous as his subject matter. With this one project, Andy changed art in a new way. Although it could be thought of as vapid, I think it was a smart move on the artist, because he was, as many great artists do, taking down the structure of art and making people think about what art is again. Pop arts celebration of the banal and its unapologetic dismissal of higher aims soon lost their original shock value, yet Andy, its best known person, remained on top throughout his lifetime. Born in Pennsylvania in 1930 with the name Andrew Warhola, he graduated college from the Carnegie Institute of Technology in 1949. He then moved to New York City where he became involved in commercial art and won several prizes. His development in fine art began with wry, delicate drawings and culminated in the hard-hitting graphic style that became a huge success. He had a solo show in New Yorks Stable Gallery in 1962 and it brought him instant fame. In his studio he mass-produced many of the peaces that we see today. The pop artist not only depicted mass products but he also wanted to mass-produce his own works of pop art. Consequently he founded The Factory in 1962. It was an art studio where he employed in a rather chaotic way "art workers" to mass produce mainly prints and posters but also other items like shoes designed by the artist. The first location of the Factory was in 231 E. 47th Street, 5th Floor (between 1st & 2nd Ave). Warhol's favorite printmaking technique was silkscreen. It came closest to his idea of proliferation of art. Apart from being an Art Produ...

Ethics and Morality of Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Ethics and Morality of Business - Essay Example Career development programmes are not just altruistic pursuits. These are followed keeping the future human resource requirements in mind. Similar is the case with ethics. Given a level playing field, most organizations do not shy away from ethical behaviour. With the explosion of information and the communication revolution, the media plays a crucial role in building and tarnishing reputations of businesses. Hence, every organization tries to enhance its reputation among all its stakeholders. Ethics is a novel outlook for businesses that have single mindedly pursued the bottom line so far. Hence, there exists a twilight zone where business and ethics meet. In the modern world, differences are blurring and concepts are getting re-defined constantly. Business can reap benefits without compromising on basic human values. There is no need to give up on competitiveness to be morally right. Hence, it is possible to conduct business ethically, which is essentially a win-win situation. Conc epts Rationalism dictates that everything should be useful and justifiable. Utilitarianism and utility analysis as used by business vary significantly. When a firm uses a utility, it weighs the positive and negative consequences of a certain action as it relates to itself; and a utilitarian analysis weighs these  'results of an action on everyone affected by it' (De George, 2010, pg 44). Morality is concerned with creating good consequences, not having good intentions. One should do whatever will bring the utmost benefit to all of humanity. Morality guides people’s actions in order to create a better world. Bentham (1748–1832) is rightly considered the father of modern utilitarianism. He explained utility as the balance of pleasure and pain that a human being experiences (as cited in Binmore, n.d.). â€Å"The principle of utility . . . is that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever according to the tendency which it appears to have to aug ment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question.† (Bentham Jeremy, B. E. 1748-1832). Bentham thought that entire morality could be derived from ‘enlightened self-interest’, and that a person who always acted for his own satisfaction in the long run, would always act rightly. However, there are critics of Bentham. ‘The good’ cannot be quantified or measured. Similarly, the notion or definition of ‘the good’ was extreme. At the same time, other considerations like human rights and justice, which are relevant, are ignored. John Stuart Mill said that happiness in not the same as pleasure. Man shared the lower quality ones with animals for e.g. food, water etc. The higher quality pleasures were unique to man and involved the higher faculties (Mill, 1863, Pg 11). He showed that utilitarianism was in sync with moral rules. Utilitarians ought not to calculate beforehand whether each action would maximize utility. Instead , following a general principle (under which a particular action falls) leads to happiness. Henry Sidgwick highlighted common sense morality, which is morality accepted by the majority without detailed thinking involved, in his book Method of Ethics (Crisp, 2000). He stated that not all principles of common sense morality are apparent. He was in favour of ethical hedonism according to which any action should produce the greatest amount of pleasure. He was of the opinion that no man should destroy his own happiness (Ibid).

Marketing Concepts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Marketing Concepts - Essay Example In the UK, 28% of consumers own a smartphone and by 2015 iPhones will make up 11% of all total devices used in the UK.† (Mintel, 2010) The trend in sales has proved that customers are now looking at mobile phone as a device beyond a small instrument that helps to make phone calls. In fact, making calls have become just small of the many functions of mobile phones. Mobile phones are now a total communication and mobility solution. This trend in the industry was driven by the smart phone of iPhone, Nokia, Samsung, Blackberry and other players. This report will discuss the macro and micro environmental changes in the industry and its impacts on the marketing activities of smart phone companies. The report will be discussed with particular reference to Apple iPhone and RIM Blackberry. Mobile phone industry is one of the fastest growing and fastest changing industries in the world. The products become outdated very quickly than in any other domain. Innovation in products, services a nd marketing activities are most common in the industry. Smart phones are the power houses of mobile phone market. Globally, â€Å"Feature phones still represent the majority of mobile phone shipments, even though they are under increasing pressure from smartphones.† (Wauters, 2011) IPhone and Blackberry are among the leading smart phone makers of the world though Blackberry’s market share is slowly being taken over by Samsung. This report will deal primarily with the environmental factors affecting the smart phone industry. The report will also deal with the importance of market segmentation, targeting and positioning in the industry. The later part of the report will discuss the importance of adopting a right marketing mix for the smart phone industry. Environmental Factors and their Impact The major macro environmental factors that affect marketing in the mobile phone market are technology, economic factors, education and employment levels and social factors. (Zain Books, 2011) Technology is the primary factor that drives the handset industry. Recent developments in the market have shown that Apple has come up with the software called ‘siri’ which is expected to take the market by storm. Such developments will force Blackberry to introduce similar technology or any other differentiating factor on its further models and marketing. Economic condition is the next major factor that impacts the marketing. A slowing economy will usually dent the demand for handsets in the market. A slow economy is usually followed by low disposable income in the hands of the consumers. Therefore, the companies will mostly reduce their marketing spending in order to reduce cost and improve margin. Education and employment levels determine whether the consumers will have enough knowledge and disposable income to purchase mobile phones. Companies like Apple and Blackberry will have to decide on the pricing and product features based on the educational and employment level of the customers. The next macro environmental factor that has an impact on the marketing decisions of handset companies are social factors. The social set up and reference groups create a huge impact on the purchasing decisions of consumers. (Tutor2u, 2011) Therefore, the marketing activities of a company in one region are entirely different from that of the other region. For instance, the theme of iPhone advertisement in United States will be different from what it is in India. The main reason is the difference between social

Rethorical analysis of Deep Play Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Rethorical analysis of Deep Play - Essay Example It should also outline the effectiveness of the techniques and examples of the techniques. It is vital to note that during a rhetorical analysis, the analyst does not simply agree with the argument outlined by the author. The rhetorical analysis discusses the techniques used by the author to make arguments. The rhetorical analysis of Diane Ackerman’s Deep Play is essential in the comprehension of the author’s objectives and the themes in the article. The heightened experiences of the society highlight issues such as creativity. According to the article, the society honors and respects the natural world. The author tackles the issue of creativity through the exploration of essential aspects such as the ability of humans to play. The way the author tells the story shows that the ability to play is important to the society because it reflects intricate connections in the social relationships and connections of the culture (Ackerman 19). Deep Play is a brilliant ethnographi c example of the theoretical change from functionalism to interpretative anthropology. Naturalist and poet Diane Ackerman uses meandering meditation to come up with the word deep play. This word refers to a number of things within the scope of the zone and flow, in addition to sacred play. The author’s subject is characterized by ecstasy and intensity. In this case, moments in the article are heightened when the senses and mind work at full capacity. The author’s acknowledgement helps in the creation of potent content for the reader. She also relies on previous works of eco-psychology and poetry. This content fits in the author’s broad conceit as she compiled a wide range of activities (Ackerman 22). The author is able to write using observation, which means that she shows her qualities when she writes about natural elements because they are observable. The author asserts that poetry functions as deep play, which explains why she used poetry in chapter six of he r book. Her observations enabled her to make conclusions about sports. She cited professional athletes as business like people. She also notes that amateurs are more playful than the business like professional athletes. The interpretive anthropology used by Diane Ackerman is based on the fact that meaning is possible. In this case, the meaning is interpreted because it is through differences that people can become aware of different aspects of their lives. These differences also enable them to compare these aspects. In the article Deep Play, Diane Ackerman responds to post colonial fieldwork experiences by using the constructionist theory of knowledge (Ackerman 24). This knowledge is essential in understanding the natural world. It also helps the author to create rapturous moods that awaken creativity and joy in the reader’s inner self. In Deep Play, the author argues that structuralism is different to interpretive or symbolic anthropology. The author implies that instead of using totem rites, myths and marriage rules as textual aspects of interpretation, structuralism uses them as ciphers. According to Diane Ackerman, structuralism does not seek to understand the symbolic forms according to how they function in concrete situations (Ackerman 33). The author seeks to understand the symbolic forms by covering panoply of spiritual, artistic and athletic activities. This plays a crucial role in understanding moments of human transcendence. Structuralism seeks to

Turkey Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Turkey - Research Paper Example The region is heavily populated with a population of 77.8 million. There are 257.6 people per square miles in Turkey. The fact that the country has a large population relative to its size is a good business proposition because there a lot of potential customers looking to spend. A business risk associated with Turkey is the fact that country is one of the world’s most earthquake prone regions (CultureGrams, 2011). An important factor that determines the viability of penetration in a region is the income of the population. Turkey has a gross domestic product per capita of $11,500. Agriculture is the bulk of the economy providing for the majority of the exports of Turkey. Agriculture provides a high percentage of the jobs, but it represents a low percentage of the gross domestic product. The main agricultural products produced in Turkey are cotton, tobacco, sweet fruits, olives, cereal, nuts, livestock and opium for medical purposes. The manufacturing sector in Turkey employees about a quarter of the population and it represents nearly 50% of the gross domestic product. Tourism is a growing industry in Turkey. Inflation is traditionally high in Turkey and it is currently hovering at around 10% (CultureGrams, 2011). The dominant religion in Turkey is Sunni Muslim with 99% of the population practicing this religion. Turkish is the official language of Turkey.

Anatomy shsort answer discussions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Anatomy shsort answer discussions - Assignment Example For this reason, lymphatic capillaries assist in the immune system while the lower permeability of blood capillaries helps maintain blood pressure during circulation. In addition, nodes interrupt lymph capillaries while blood capillaries are not. This allows for continuous blood flow while filtration occurs in the lymphatic system (Zuther, 2011). The central nervous controls the intake of oxygen and expulsion of carbon dioxide from the body while regulating respiration. This is through initiating breathing and maintaining it in order to remove harmful carbon dioxide produced by metabolic functions. This process occurs through sensitivity of chemoreceptors that detect chemical substances in the body and relay the information to the respiratory control center. The other system that controls the rate of respiration is the acidity tracking system in the body. This tracks the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood leading to a rise in acidity causing an increase in respiration that retains pH balance (Hendrickson, 2011). Defense mechanisms also regulate respiratory levels through epinephrine and its effects. This is concerning preparing the body for fight or flight where the heart rate increases and decreases respectively (Hendrickson,

Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Summary - Essay Example Researchers are also developing a washing machine that is connected to the internet to reduce dependency on energy and increase efficiency. This article explains the development of Chain Home, the first radar defence system ever created in the world. Robert Watson-Watt, a Scottish physicist, led the team that manufactured the Chain Home. The new BBC film ‘Castles in the Sky’ elaborates the drama that accompanied the manufacturing of this defence system. Scientific drama entailed manufacturing a fully functioning system at the least cost and in the shortest time while political drama entailed the dilemma of appeasement or re-armament policies. The film also shows the secrecy and the enormous costs that accompanied the development of the system. The radar system was important in Britain’s quest to keep Luftwaffe at check but its development continues to date. Clark and Johnston emphasize on the importance of a disposable society. A disposable society is a society that uses disposable items that can decompose. Clark and Johnston discourage the use of plastic bags citing their negative environmental effect. This article encourages the use of disposable items instead of plastic materials. Disposable materials are cost-effective to manufacture especially when recycled and environmentally friendly. In addition, this article supports the use of sustainable building materials. It examines the benefits of using grown materials over using artificial materials. The Firth of Forth, the Pont de Normandie and the Angel of the North are among the most iconic structures in the world because of their unique design. These structures embody creativity and innovation. The Forth Bridge took six years to build from 1882 to 1889. It contains a cantilever design balanced on its three towers. These towers support and hold the trains and link bridge between the two main sections. The Forth Bridge is the second largest

Turkey Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Turkey - Research Paper Example The region is heavily populated with a population of 77.8 million. There are 257.6 people per square miles in Turkey. The fact that the country has a large population relative to its size is a good business proposition because there a lot of potential customers looking to spend. A business risk associated with Turkey is the fact that country is one of the world’s most earthquake prone regions (CultureGrams, 2011). An important factor that determines the viability of penetration in a region is the income of the population. Turkey has a gross domestic product per capita of $11,500. Agriculture is the bulk of the economy providing for the majority of the exports of Turkey. Agriculture provides a high percentage of the jobs, but it represents a low percentage of the gross domestic product. The main agricultural products produced in Turkey are cotton, tobacco, sweet fruits, olives, cereal, nuts, livestock and opium for medical purposes. The manufacturing sector in Turkey employees about a quarter of the population and it represents nearly 50% of the gross domestic product. Tourism is a growing industry in Turkey. Inflation is traditionally high in Turkey and it is currently hovering at around 10% (CultureGrams, 2011). The dominant religion in Turkey is Sunni Muslim with 99% of the population practicing this religion. Turkish is the official language of Turkey.

Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Summary - Essay Example Researchers are also developing a washing machine that is connected to the internet to reduce dependency on energy and increase efficiency. This article explains the development of Chain Home, the first radar defence system ever created in the world. Robert Watson-Watt, a Scottish physicist, led the team that manufactured the Chain Home. The new BBC film ‘Castles in the Sky’ elaborates the drama that accompanied the manufacturing of this defence system. Scientific drama entailed manufacturing a fully functioning system at the least cost and in the shortest time while political drama entailed the dilemma of appeasement or re-armament policies. The film also shows the secrecy and the enormous costs that accompanied the development of the system. The radar system was important in Britain’s quest to keep Luftwaffe at check but its development continues to date. Clark and Johnston emphasize on the importance of a disposable society. A disposable society is a society that uses disposable items that can decompose. Clark and Johnston discourage the use of plastic bags citing their negative environmental effect. This article encourages the use of disposable items instead of plastic materials. Disposable materials are cost-effective to manufacture especially when recycled and environmentally friendly. In addition, this article supports the use of sustainable building materials. It examines the benefits of using grown materials over using artificial materials. The Firth of Forth, the Pont de Normandie and the Angel of the North are among the most iconic structures in the world because of their unique design. These structures embody creativity and innovation. The Forth Bridge took six years to build from 1882 to 1889. It contains a cantilever design balanced on its three towers. These towers support and hold the trains and link bridge between the two main sections. The Forth Bridge is the second largest

Enron scandal Essay Example for Free

Enron scandal Essay A brief on Enron’s history ï‚ § Enron was formed in 1985 by Kenneth Lay after merging Houston Natural Gas and InterNorth. ï‚ § In the early 1990s, he helped to initiate the selling of electricity at market prices, The resulting markets made it possible for traders such as Enron to sell energy at higher prices, thereby significantly increasing its revenue. ï‚ § As Enron became the largest seller of natural gas in North America by 1992, Enron pursued a diversification strategy owning and operating a variety of assets including gas pipelines, electricity plants, pulp and paper plants, water plants, and broadband services across the globe. (cont.) brief ï‚ § Enrons stock increased from the start of the 1990s until year-end 1998 by 311% percent, only modestly higher than the average rate of growth in the Standard Poor 500 index. ï‚ § However, the stock increased by 56% in 1999 and a further 87%compared to a 20%  increase and a 10% decrease for the index  during the same years. By December 31,  2000, Enron’s stock was priced at $83.13  and its market capitalization exceeded $60  billion, 70 times earnings and six times  book value, an indication of the stock  market’s high expectations about its future  prospects. In addition, Enron was rated the  most innovative large company in America  in Fortunes Most Admired Companies  survey. Causes of downfall †¢ Enrons complex financial statements were confusing to shareholders and  analysts by using accounting limitations to misrepresent earnings and modify the balance sheet to indicate favorable performance, According to McLean and Elkind in their book The Smartest Guys in the Room, The Enron scandal grew out of a steady accumulation of habits and values and actions that began years before and finally spiraled out of control. the combination of these issues later resulted in the bankruptcy of the company. †¢ the majority of them were perpetuated by the indirect knowledge or direct actions of Lay, Jeffrey Skilling, Andrew Fastow, and other executives, Skilling constantly focused on meeting Wall Street expectations, advocated the use of mark-to-market accounting and pressured Enron executives to find new ways to hide its debt. (Cont.) causes of downfall Mark-To-Market accounting: †¢ when Skilling joined the company, he demanded that the  trading business adopt mark-to-market accounting, citing that it would represent true economic value. †¢ This method requires that once a long-term contract was signed, income is estimated as the present value of net future cash flow. Often, the viability of these contracts and their related costs were difficult to estimate, investors were typically given false or misleading reports. †¢ While using the method, income from projects could be recorded, although they might not have ever received the money, and in turn increasing financial earnings on the books. However, in future years, the profits could not be included, so new and additional income had to be included from more projects to develop additional growth to appease investors. (Cont.) causes of downfall †¢ For one contract, in July 2000, Enron and Blockbuster Video signed a 20-year agreement to introduce on-demand entertainment to various U.S. cities by year-end. After several pilot projects, Enron recognized estimated profits of more than $110 million from the deal, even though analysts questioned the technical viability and market demand of the service. When the network failed to work, Blockbuster withdrew from the contract. Enron continued to recognize future profits, even though the deal resulted in a loss . †¢ Between 1996 and 2000, Enrons revenues increased by more than 750%, rising from $13.3 billion in 1996 to $100.8 billion in 2000. This extensive expansion of 65% per year was unprecedented in any industry, including the energy industry which typically considered growth of 2–3% per year to be respectable. For just the first nine months of 2001, Enron reported $138.7 billion in revenues, which placed the company at the sixth position on the Fortune Global 500. (Cont.) causes of downfall Special purpose entities: †¢ Enron used special purpose entities—limited partnerships or companies created to fulfill a temporary or specific purpose . †¢ These shell firms were created by a sponsor, but funded by independent equity investors and debt financing. †¢ By 2001, Enron had used hundreds of special purpose entities to hide its debt . †¢ The special purpose entities were used for more than just circumventing accounting conventions. Enrons balance sheet understated its liabilities and overstated its equity, and its earnings were overstated (cont.) causes of downfall Executive compensation: †¢ Although Enrons compensation and performance management system was designed to retain and reward its most valuable employees, the system contributed to a dysfunctional corporate culture that became obsessed with short-term earnings to maximize bonuses. †¢ Employees constantly tried to start deals, disregarding the quality of  cash flow or profits, in order to get a better rating for their performance review. (cont.) causes of downfall †¢ The company was constantly emphasizing its stock price. Management was compensated extensively using stock options. †¢ Skilling would develop target earnings by asking What earnings do you need to keep our stock price up? and that number would be used, even if it was not feasible. †¢ Employees had large expense accounts and many executives were paid sometimes twice as much as competitors. †¢ In 1998, the top 200 highest-paid employees received $193 million from salaries, bonuses, and stock. Two years later, the figure jumped to $1.4 billion. (cont.) causes of downfall  Financial audit: †¢ Enrons auditor firm, Arthur Andersen, was accused of applying reckless standards in its audits because of a conflict of interest over the significant consulting fees generated by Enron. †¢ Andersens auditors were pressured by Enrons management to defer recognizing the charges from the special purpose entities as its credit risks became known. †¢ To pressure Andersen into meeting Enrons earnings expectations, Enron would occasionally allow accounting companies Ernst Young or PricewaterhouseCoopers to complete accounting tasks to create the illusion of hiring a new company to replace Andersen. †¢ In addition, after news of U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) investigations of Enron were made public, Andersen would later shred several tons of relevant documents and delete nearly 30,000 e-mails and computer files, causing accusations of a cover-up. (cont.) causes of downfall Other accounting issues: †¢ Enron made a habit of booking costs of cancelled projects as assets, with the rationale that no official letter had stated that the project was cancelled. This method was known as the snowball, and although it was initially dictated that such practices be used only for projects worth less than $90 million, it was later increased to $200 million. †¢ In 1998, when analysts were given a tour of the Enron Energy Services office, they were impressed with how the employees were working so vigorously. In reality, Skilling had moved other employees to the office from other departments (instructing them to pretend to work hard) to create the appearance that the division was larger than it was. This ruse was used several times to fool analysts about the progress of different areas of Enron to help improve the stock price. Bankruptcy †¢ On November 28, 2001, The company had very little cash with which to operate, let alone satisfy enormous debts. Its stock price fell to $0.61 at the end of the days trading. †¢ Enron was estimated to have about $23 billion in liabilities from both debt outstanding and guaranteed loans. Citigroup and JP Morgan Chase in particular appeared to have significant amounts to lose with Enrons bankruptcy. †¢ Enrons European operations filed for bankruptcy on November 30, 2001, and it sought Chapter 11 protection two days later on December 2. It was the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history (before being surpassed by WorldComs bankruptcy the next year), and resulted in 4,000 lost jobs. Sarbanes-Oxley Act †¢ The bill was enacted as a reaction to a number of major corporate and accounting scandals including those affecting Enron, Tyco International, Adelphia, Peregrine Systems and WorldCom. These scandals, which cost investors billions of dollars when the share prices of affected companies collapsed, shook public confidence in the nations securities markets. †¢ The main provisions of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act included the establishment of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board to develop standards for the preparation of audit reports; the restriction of public accounting companies from providing any non-auditing services when auditing; provisions for the independence of audit committee members, executives being required to sign off on financial reports. Major elements: (Cont.)SOX 1.Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB): Title I consists of nine sections and establishes the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, to provide independent oversight of public accounting firms providing audit services (auditors). It also creates a central oversight board tasked with registering auditors, defining the specific processes and procedures for compliance audits 2. Auditor Independence: Title II consists of nine sections and establishes standards for external auditor independence, to limit conflicts of interest. It also addresses new auditor approval requirements, audit partner rotation, and auditor reporting requirements. It restricts auditing companies from providing non-audit services (e.g., consulting) for the same clients. (Cont.)SOX 3. Corporate Responsibility: Title III consists of eight sections and mandates that senior executives take individual responsibility for the accuracy and completeness of corporate financial reports. It defines the interaction of external auditors and corporate audit committees, and specifies the responsibility of corporate officers for the accuracy and validity of corporate financial reports. It enumerates specific limits on the behaviors of corporate officers and describes specific forfeitures of benefits and civil penalties for non-compliance. For example, Section 302 requires that the companys  principal officers (typically the Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer) certify and approve the integrity of their company financial reports quarterly. (Cont.)SOX 4. Enhanced Financial Disclosures: Title IV consists of nine sections. It describes enhanced reporting requirements for financial transactions, including off-balance-sheet transactions, pro-forma figures and stock transactions of corporate officers. 5. Analyst Conflicts of Interest : Title V consists of only one section, which includes measures designed to help restore investor confidence in the reporting of securities analysts. It defines the codes of conduct for securities analysts and requires disclosure of knowable conflicts of interest. 6. Commission Resources and Authority: Title VI consists of four sections and defines practices to restore investor confidence in securities analysts. It also defines the SECs authority to censure or bar securities professionals from practice and defines conditions under which a person can be barred from practicing as a broker, advisor, or dealer. (Cont.)SOX 7.Studies and Reports: Title VII consists of five sections and requires the Comptroller General and the SEC to perform various studies and report their findings. Studies and reports include the effects of consolidation of public accounting firms, the role of credit rating agencies in the operation of securities markets, securities violations and enforcement actions, and whether investment banks assisted Enron, Global Crossing and others to manipulate earnings and obfuscate true financial conditions. (Cont.)SOX 8. Corporate and Criminal Fraud Accountability: It describes specific criminal penalties for manipulation, destruction or alteration of financial records or other interference with investigations, while providing certain protections for whistle-blowers. 9. White Collar Crime Penalty Enhancement: This section increases the criminal penalties associated with white-collar crimes and conspiracies. It recommends stronger sentencing guidelines and specifically adds failure to certify corporate financial reports as a criminal offense. (Cont.)SOX 10. Corporate Tax Returns : Title X consists of one section. Section 1001 states that the Chief Executive Officer should sign the company tax return. 11. Corporate Fraud Accountability : It identifies corporate fraud and records tampering as criminal offenses and joins those offenses to specific penalties. It also revises sentencing guidelines and strengthens their penalties. This enables the SEC to resort to temporarily freezing transactions or payments that have been deemed large or unusual.

Literature On Solid Waste Management

Literature On Solid Waste Management There is not much literature available on Harar Municipal Solid Waste Management sector although such studies were conducted at Addis Ababa and Jimma. Therefore, this section borrows liberally from studies conducted elsewhere. While poor management of solid waste is a general problem in Ethiopia, it is probably conspicuous in Harar city considering its historical and regional importance. It is a government organization that motivates the public towards SWM. Pubic and government are inseparable from the welfare point of view. The question is how do we get local municipality in Harar as an organ of the state government to be innovative in providing solid waste services? Despite the wide use of the term, innovation systems are yet to be clearly defined, characterized and evaluated in a systematic and quantifiable manner. With the selection of solid waste services in local municipality the following experience in Sri Lanka may of interest and guidance to us. The innovation systems theory in the 1980s in Sri Lanka invoked the notion of national innovation systems which are made up of institutions that create, store and transfer knowledge. It is now becoming increasingly clear that the creators of knowledge are not limited to those in institutions dedicated to such. Instead now it is widely accepted that knowledge is created in application as opposed to formal knowledge institutions (Gibbons et al., 1994) Moreover, emerging importance of knowledge underpins the conceptual basis for the project. A change in the nature of the knowledge landscape was predicted by Gibbons and others as early as the 1990s in what they termed as the changing modes of knowledge production. They designated knowledge produced in formal settings such as Universities and research institutes as institution influenced knowledge and knowledge gained in work places and other settings as formal practical knowledge which will gradually supersede institutional knowledge. Although the concept is widely used in the literature, empirical work supporting it is lacking. Yet, any training that Harar municipality would offer to its employees involved in SWM would make a breakthrough in SWM system. Knowledge for innovation in solid waste services will be generated from within the practitioners, with the formal knowledge community playing a supporting role. It is also becoming increasingly difficult to separate creation of knowledge from the sharing or the application. An emerging literature such as Bartone (1995) on Knowledge Intensive Business Services (KIBS) supports the newer notion of knowledge creation and application is not two separate things. Innovation in services is now understood to be an ongoing process where the producers of the service continually learn from customers, suppliers and recruits. 2.2 Social Assessment 2.2.1 Introduction to SA Moreover, as this study looked into social factors assessment, the following literature reviews were felt suitable for discussion. Although the researcher applied only some the following views for this project, the SA views for SWM gains prominence in that any participatory approach needs a strong social assessment. According to the World Bank, (2003) a social assessment refers to the analysis that a borrower undertakes during project design to assess social feasibility of a project. It also incorporates a range of instruments that can be used not only to obtain the necessary social input and identify appropriate mechanisms for community participation in the design and implementation of these systems, but also to ensure that vulnerable social groups are not excluded from the benefits of investments and system improvements. Equally important is the need to ensure that social groups and communities are not adversely affected by relevant decisions whether they relate to factors such as changes in service fees, expansion of service boundaries, and/or inclusion/exclusion of activities of the informal sector with regard to SWM. Further, World Bank (2003) is of the opinion that the ideal SA facilitates the process through which the Borrower better understands social organization and cultural systems, as well as institutional, historical, and political contexts in order to ensure the quality of investment design and success during implementation; provides means to enhance equality, strengthen social inclusion and cohesion, promote transparent governance and empower the poor and the vulnerable in project design and/or implementation. It further says that it constitutes a mechanism to identify the opportunities, constraints, impacts, and social risks associated with policy and project design; provides a framework for dialogue on development priorities among social groups, civil society, government and other stakeholders; and uses an approach to identify and mitigate the potential social risks, including adverse social impacts. According to Social Assessment for Tehran City Solid Waste Management Project (2004) Community and institutional characteristics are as important as household characteristics in determining the role of stakeholders in MSWM. Often the poorest communities, such as those that are of low caste or ethnic status, and those that are new immigrants of urban peripheries, are either excluded from MSWM services or may be adversely impacted. Dump sites may be located near the most vulnerable communities, thus subjecting them to health problems. This is quite true to Harar city. Their voices may not be strong enough within the urban political structure to affect positive changes in their environmental status. The said project of Tehran further demonstrated that a thorough assessment of socio-economic, demographic and migratory characteristics of the project population was an important analytical tool that helped formulate recommendations for the improvement of the MSWS in the city. These improvem ents were directly derived from the findings of the SA. 2.2.2 Gender Perspectives Gender and MSWM are closely related. Although this study does not delve deep into gender dimension with regard SWM of Harar city, it is true that SWM is gendered to some extent in the city. According to Scheinberg et al. (1999) many aspects of solid waste management are gendered. Looking at gender dimensions of MSWM also enables the planners to note the differences in the behavior, needs, and the roles played by other social groups. Women and men play different roles in the MSWM at all levels. At the household level, for example, they have different responsibilities. At workplaces dealing with waste sorting, collection, transportation, and planning, there are other key differences. Although the differences are largely culture specific, it is not common to see women among the high level managers of solid waste within municipal or formal private sector institutions Women may take responsibility for community cleanliness as long as the work is voluntary, but when it becomes paid and leg itimized, it frequently, if not always goes to men. In planning improvements to the MSWM system, therefore, the implications are that there is a need to preserve womens role in cleaning activities (UWEP 1999). Womens ability to contribute to environmental cleaning or even carrying their household waste to bins placed in public places may be hindered in certain cultural settings where womens presence in public is discouraged, as is documented for Yemens secondary cities (Bernstein 1998). Although it may not be fully true to Harar city, elderly and middle aged women do not get involved in these activities frequently 2.2.3 Poverty and Low Income Many studies were conducted on poverty and low income. These studies proved that they were closely related to SWM. The following are some excerpts from literature in this regard that go hand in hand with the existing social and economic condition that prevails in the study area affecting the MSWM. Among other issues that are important in analyzing social diversity, understanding poverty dimensions is critical. Urban poverty and poor environmental conditions in most parts of the world are inextricably linked. In many cities, the poor do not have access to the formal solid waste collection service, or live in unsafe, marginal, and environmentally hazardous areas such as polluted land-sites near solid waste dumps. These conditions lead to poor environmental health which aggravates poverty and leads to impacts such as loss of income due to sickness and disease, inadequate medical treatment, and increased spending on health care which depletes household savings. Lowered incomes and aggravated poverty divest the poor of their capability either to live in safer environments or to improve the environment where they live. Hence, it is essential to improve environmental conditions that surround the urban poor in order to enhance the latters capability to fight poverty (Bartone, 2000). In the context of an investment in MSWM, project planners should ensure that the poor are among the beneficiaries of service improvements. Waste pickers at dumpsites and on the streets commonly are socially marginalized. They work under conditions which are extremely hazardous to health and detrimental to family, social, and educational development and live without basic economic or social security. Often children and the elderly are involved in this type of work. Waste pickers live and work under socially precarious conditions and are subject to serious health risks. Support should aim to improve their working conditions, earnings, and access to social services. In three Turkish cities (Diyarbakir, Mardin, Urfa), large numbers of school age children walk around the city streets in small groups, sorting for a wide range of items. These are the children of families that have been displaced from their villages for security reasons. The little that they are able to earn from scavenging meets a significant percentage of the food needs of their families (Bernstein, 1999). Improving environmental conditions in cities and towns helps in reducing poverty directly as well as indirectly (Bartone, 2000). As a direct impact, improvement in solid waste conditions can lead to better health which in turn, can help to improve productivity and increased incomes. An indirect impact of improved solid waste conditions can lead to decreased health problems and hence, savings from spending on health. The savings and better living environment per se would provide the poor with resources, time, and most importantly a better quality of life to enrich their skills (and thereby increase their capabilities) to earn higher incomes, and fight poverty. Further, an increase in income would also enable the poor to pay for the basic environmental services they need. Many other aspects of MSWM are closely related to poverty. Poverty is closely associated with low level of garbage generation and waste collection as well as high levels of waste sorting, re-use, and recycling. Poverty is also associated with residential proximity to dump sites as well as exclusion from municipal services. Poverty influences pe oples perception on SWM. 2.2. 4 Garbage Pickers and Environment Many people both young and old make a living from the SW dumps in the outskirts of the city. This poses a great danger to the community in general and the collectors in particular. Aging is also emerging as a critical problem in MSWM (Bernstein, 1999). In many nations of Eastern Europe and most countries of the former Soviet Union (FSU) population aging is rising. In some cases, over a quarter of the population are older than 60 years (Kudat and Youssef 1999). Even when they generate low volume of solid waste, elderly people face special problems. For example, they often do not have easy access to a waste collection bins or have difficulties paying for the waste collection services. According to World Bank (2004) in some countries, the poorest segments of the elderly population (mainly abandoned single elderly) collect food from waste bins, thus facing serious health risks. In others situations (e.g., in Mongolia) there are many elderly individuals who collect recyclable items (cans and bottles) for cash. For many of them, collecting waste is the main source of income. The livelihoods of solid waste collectors at Harar city depend on the cash they generate through the collection. There are, however, important environmentally sound lessons that can be learnt from the poor with respect to both the reduction of waste and its re-use. In poor communities of Mardin, for example, most upper income groups do not engage in any sorting whereas all lower income residents make use of plastic materials, paper, cardboard and tin cans. Among the poor, for example, paper waste is used as a fire starter for stoves, leftover bread is given to milk sellers or to bran manufacturers and plastic bags are used for carrying food or storing bread (Bernstein, 1999). Levels of economic development and household income are important determinants of the volume and composition of wastes generated by residential and other users, as well as the willingness and ability to pay for a particular level of service. Similarly, the characteristics of other waste generators (for example, artisan shops, schools, government offices, bars) determine their ability and willingness to pay for MSWM service s. It is often assumed that the poor would both be unable and unwilling to pay for improved MSWM services. The evidence from the water and sanitation sector strongly points in the opposite direction (Cernea, and Kudat 1977). Indeed, the poor are often unable to have regular access to municipal services and, and must pay a disproportionately higher share of their income to pay for alternative service arrangements. The garbage collectors indeed face huge risk both for their own health and the health of the community they live with. The following are literature reviews in this regard. Most of the information available from these secondary sources is true to the solid waste collectors of Harar. All activities in solid waste management involve risk, either to the workers directly involved, or to the nearby residents. Risks occur at every step in the process, from the point where residents source segregate wastes into different components for collection and recycling, to the point of ultimate disposal (Cointreau 2000) Health and safety risks from waste are caused by many factors and may include the following: The nature of raw waste, its composition (that is, toxic, allergic and infectious substances), and its components (that is, gases, dusts, leachate, sharps). The nature of waste as it decomposes (that is., gases, dusts, leachate, particle sizes) and their change in ability to cause a toxic, allergic or infectious health response · The handling of waste (that is, working in traffic, shoveling, lifting, equipment vibrations, accidents) The processing of wastes (that is, odor, noise, vibration, accidents, air and water emissions, residuals, explosions, fires); The disposal of wastes (that is, odor, noise, vibration, stability of waste piles, air and water emissions, explosions, fires). It is not always possible to quantify health impacts associated with exposure to solid waste; poorly managed municipal solid waste can impose significant risks to the following groups: Refuse collection workers and waste pickers (including children) Garbage pickers who work and often live under socially precarious conditions and are subject to serious health risks, and Municipal workers also are affected by high rates of worker illness and absenteeism 2.2.5 Solid Waste Disposal The public at large is affected by poor MSWM practices that are responsible for drinking water mix-up with sewerage. Similarly, while the exposure of communities closer to the dump sites is higher, there are broader public risks associated with air pollution as well. SAs that clearly show the relationship of residential proximity to landfills and health problems have yet to be produced. Nonetheless, a study in Southeastern Turkey indicates that there may be a close relationship (Bernstein 1999), particularly for the poor. The residents say that there are a lot of diseases because they have to live close to the landfill. Our children are playing with syringes and bottles. They are dirty. Our children are sick, and there is no doctor. We dont have money. We suffer from the waste. The State must solve our problem, the residents cry. Residents of communities also add: The wind spreads plastic bags from the landfill. Our cattle are ill because they eat these plastic bags. This is very important for us because these are not only our animals but our income and our food. The SA carried out in Turkey also shows that the health impact of picking waste is often severe. Most pickers use their hands for sorting waste and are exposed to medical waste and hazardous objects. One of the children collecting waste in the landfill said I cut my hands several times. We suffer from various diseases. One of my friends and I got typhoid, and these two boys got hepatitis. Other boys cut their hands with broken glass. (Bernstein 1999). Finally, the SA undertaken in Bosnia and Herzegovina (2002) demonstrated that external factors like civil war put additional pressure on the environment and health of the local communities by contributing to the mismanagement of existing landfills and emergence of new areas for waste disposal, including those in and around abandoned home and public buildings. 2.3 Information Dissemination Dissemination of information plays a key factor in MSWM. Several literature such as Gunn, Susan E., and Zenaida Ostos (1992); Bartone, C.L, Bernstein, J.D, (1993); Olley, J and, Olbina R. (1999); Medina, Martin (2000); World Bank. 1982 recommends that taking the MSWM policies and issues to the public in the following manner plays a key role in solving several key problems in MSWM. Every good public involvement program includes a good public information campaign. In particular, the public needs to know why a solid waste facility is needed and what the consequences will be if no facility is on place. People need information about the alternatives to choose between them, and they need to know the facts about a proposed decision to decide whether they support it. Some techniques for communicating to the public are: Briefings: Briefings keep key elected officials or agencies informed of the progress with regard to MSWM. Briefings consist of a personal visit or even a phone call to inform people before an action is taken. Briefings often lead to two-way communication, because you may receive valuable information in response to your announcement. Briefing elected officials or agencies is particularly important if your actions might result in political controversy that may affect them. This was possible but not widely practiced in the study area. Feature Stories: A feature story is a full-blown news story, written by a reporter, not just an announcement based on a news release. Sending a news release to a newspaper is one way to get the media interested in your story. But often you are more likely to get someone interested if you make a personal contact with an editor or reporter who has an interest in the issue. As the study area is inhabited by basically literate people to University graduates besides some illiterate population, this could spread information on MSWM in the city. Yet, this is not practiced in the study area except for occasional publications. Mailing out Key Technical Reports or Environmental Documents: Simply making technical reports available at libraries or other public places has not proven effective for getting the level of knowledge about these documents that you need for credibility. Instead, send key documents can be mailed directly to leaders of the organized groups and interests, including business, environmental, or neighborhood associations. Although mailing documents is impractical to individuals and organizations, keeping them in public libraries could be done. However, the public libraries in the study area did not contain such documents. Paid Advertisements: Paid advertisements are one way to make an announcement or present information to the public in newspapers or on radio or television. One major consideration in paid advertising is public reaction against the spending of public funds. Occasionally, people criticize large advertisements, even if they are providing information. Paid advertisements are useful when announcing public meetings. However, this is not the case in the study area. Information on the Mass Media: This is very effective as many people could afford to own a radio and have the opportunity to watch television programs in public places and community information centers. Any program explaining the MSWM and the problems that it faces in the nation can easily be telecasted and broadcasted using experienced television and radio artists and showing live on television the sanitation degradation due to problems in MSWM. Although, the study area has a huge television screen for public at the center of the city and many people in the city own radio and have access to watch television programs, due to the absence of regular programs on SWM on mass media, information on MSWM could not reach the public at large. Willingness to Pay Another important aspect of MSWM is the WTP (Willingness To Pay) of the beneficiaries. This idea has been discussed at length in several literature related to SWM. The following points are the most important ones found in this regard. Household Income ( as discussed in Chapter One) The belief of households that it is the government and not the citizens are responsible for SWM ( this is also discussed in Chapter One) The degree of realization of the importance of proper SWM towards healthy living The Importance of PPP (Public -Private Partnership) in SWM Stringent law with regard to SWS Thus, WTP by the beneficiaries was considered for this project with regard to SWM in Harar city.